风险规避在解决社会困境中的作用.docxVIP

风险规避在解决社会困境中的作用 摘要 自利经常导致从事合作活动的个体去选择不利于合作进行的行为。“搭便车者”可以侵入合作者的社会，并造成的社会悲剧。这样的社会困境可以通过正或负的激励去克服。即使一种激励制度可以使合作者社会免于“搭便车者”的侵入，但是它始终不能把一个“搭便车者”的社会转变成合作者的社会。在后一种情况下，合作和背叛这两种现象是稳定存在的。为了避免形成完全背叛，在最初合作者必须具有足够众多的数量，那时“搭便车者”的社会就会陷入一种社会陷阱，而且除非在高昂的，几乎令人难以接受的成本支持下，制度才能使其摆脱这种社会陷阱。下面，我们分析由(a)制度提供的激励和(b)自愿参与影响之间的相互作用。我们发现，这样的组合能从根本上提高激励的效率。特别是，非强制的参与能够使惩罚“搭便车者”的制度在一个非常低的成本下去克服社会困境，并促成一个整体稳定的合作机制。这样不仅消除了社会陷阱，而且通过社会学习我们可以知道，不管最初的合作者的数量是多少，当一个合作者的社会不会被“搭便车者”入侵时，从长远来看，它必然会确立的。我们也可以证明相比奖励机制，“轻碰”式的惩罚机制可以以更低的成本去保证充分合作的实现。 关键字：惩罚机制 奖励机制 公共物品 社会契约 演化博弈  The take-it-or-leave-it option allows small penalties to overcome social dilemmas ABSTRACT Self-interest frequently causes individuals engaged in joint enterprises to choose actions that are counterproductive. Free-riders can invade a society of cooperators, causing a tragedy of the commons. Such social dilemmas can be overcome by positive or negative incentives. Even though an incentive-providing institution may protect a cooperative society from invasion by free-riders, it cannot always convert a society of free-riders to cooperation. In the latter case, both norms, cooperation and defection, are stable: To avoid a collapse to full defection, cooperators must be sufficiently numerous initially. A society of free-riders is then caught in a social trap, and the institution is unable to provide an escape, except at a high, possibly prohibitive cost. Here, we analyze the interplay of (a) incentives provided by institutions and (b) the effects of voluntary participation. We show that this combination fundamentally improves the efficiency of incentives. In particular, optional participation allows institutions punishing free-riders to overcome the social dilemma at a much lower cost, and to promote a globally stable regime of cooperation. This removes the social trap and implies that whenever a society of cooperators cannot be invaded by free-riders, it will necessarily become established in the long run, through social learning, irr