大血管小血管及糖尿病.ppt

足部病變 * * * * * * 上圖：Optical coherence tomographic image of normal retinal cross section showing the foveal depression centrally. 下圖：Macular edema showing diffuse edema and exudates around the central foveal depression. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Figure 1. Endothelial Dysfunction in Atherosclerosis. The earliest changes that precede the formation of lesions of atherosclerosis take place in the endothelium. These changes include increased endothelial permeability to lipoproteins and other plasma constituents, which is mediated by nitric oxide, prostacyclin, platelet-derived growth factor, angiotensin II, and endothelin; up-regulation of leukocyte adhesion molecules, including L-selectin, integrins, and platelet–endothelial-cell adhesion molecule 1, and the up-regulation of endothelial adhesion molecules, which include E-selectin, P-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, and vascular-cell adhesion molecule 1; and migration of leukocytes into the artery wall, which is mediated by oxidized low-density lipoprotein, monocyte chemotactic protein 1, interleukin-8, platelet-derived growth factor, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and osteopontin. * Figure 2. Fatty-Streak Formation in Atherosclerosis. Fatty streaks initially consist of lipid-laden monocytes and macrophages (foam cells) together with T lymphocytes. Later they are joined by various numbers of smooth-muscle cells. The steps involved in this process include smooth-muscle migration, which is stimulated by platelet-derived growth factor, fibroblast growth factor 2, and transforming growth factor b ; T-cell activation, which is mediated by tumor necrosis factor a , interleukin-2, and granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor; foamcell formation, which is mediated by oxidized low-density lipoprotein, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, tumor necrosis factor a , and interleukin-1; and platelet adherence and aggregation, which are stimulated by integrins, P-selectin, fibrin, thromb