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A Real-Time Algorithm for the (n2 − 1)-Puzzle Ian Parberry Department of Computer Sciences, University of North Texas, P.O. Box 13886, Denton, TX 76203–6886, U.S.A. Email: ian@. URL: /ian . Abstract A real-time algorithm for the (n2 − 1)-puzzle is designed using greedy and divide- and-conquer techniques. It is proved that (ignoring lower order terms) the new algorithm uses at most 5n3 moves, and that any such algorithm must make at least 3 3 n moves in the worst case, at least 2n /3 moves on average, and with probability one, at least 0.264n3 moves on random configurations. Keywords: Analysis of algorithms, 15-puzzle, (n2 − 1)-puzzle, greedy algorithm, divide and conquer, real-time algorithm, lower bound, Manhattan distance. 1 Introduction The 15-puzzle is defined as follows. We are given 15 numbered tiles arranged in a × 4grid (leaving one tile missing). The aim is to scramble the puzzle and return it to the target configuration shown in Figure 1 by repeatedly sliding an adjacent tile into the blank location. Horden [3] gives an interesting history of this puzzle and its variants. It has long been known that exactly half of the permutations of tiles can be solved (see, for example, Gardner [2]). When the blank is in the lower right-hand corner of the board, the legal configurations of the puzzle are exactly those that can be obtained by performing an even num- ber of transpositions of tiles. Early work on the 15-puzzle includes Johnson [4] and Storey [10]. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Fig. 1. Target configuration of the 15-puzzle. The blank is black. Preprint submitted to Elsevier S