《精》JZchpt01-lkj.pptVIP

* * Modern Trends Historical contributions to performance: Better processes (faster devices) ~20% Better circuits/pipelines ~15% Better organization/architecture ~15% Pentium P-Pro P-II P-III P-4 Itanium Montecito Year 1993 95 97 99 2000 2002 2005 Transistors 3.1M 5.5M 7.5M 9.5M 42M 300M 1720M Clock Speed 60M 200M 300M 500M 1500M 800M 1800M Moore’s Law in action At this point, adding transistors to a core yields little benefit * What Does This Mean to a Programmer? In the past, a new chip directly meant 50% higher performance for a program Today, one can expect only a 20% improvement, unless… the program can be broken up into multiple threads Expect #threads to emerge as a major metric for software quality 4-way multi-core 8-way multi-core * Major concerns: The performance problem (especially scientific workloads) The power dissipation problem (especially embedded processors) The temperature problem The reliability problem Challenges for the Hardware Designers * The HW/SW Interface Compiler lw $15, 0($2) add $16, $15, $14 add $17, $15, $13 lw $18, 0($12) lw $19, 0($17) add $20, $18, $19 sw $20, 0($16) a[i] = b[i] + c; Binary machine language program Assembly Language Program High-Level language Program Assembler 000000101100000 110100000100010 … * Computer Components Input/output devices Secondary storage: non-volatile, slower, cheaper Primary storage: volatile, faster, costlier CPU/processor * Growth of capacity per DRAM chip over time * Wafers and Dies * The semiconductor silicon and the chip manufacturing process * Inside the processor chip * Manufacturing Process Silicon wafers undergo many processing steps so that different parts of the wafer behave as insulators, conductors, and transistors (switches) Multiple metal layers on the silicon enable connections between transistors The wafer