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Pattern ClassificationAll materials in these slides were taken from Pattern Classification (2nd ed) by R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart and D. G. Stork, John Wiley Sons, 2000 with the permission of the authors and the publisher Chapter 4 (Part 1):Non-Parametric Classification (Sections 4.1-4.3) Introduction Density Estimation Parzen Windows 4.1 Introduction All Parametric densities are unimodal (have a single local maximum), whereas many practical problems involve multi-modal densities Nonparametric procedures can be used with arbitrary distributions and without the assumption that the forms of the underlying densities are known There are two types of nonparametric methods: Estimating p(x | ?j ) Bypass probability and go directly to a-posteriori probability P(?j | x ) estimation 4.2 Density Estimation Basic idea: Probability that a vector x will fall in region R is: P is a smoothed (or averaged) version of the density function p(x) if we have a sample of size n; therefore, the probability that k points fall in R is then: and the expected value for k is: E(k) = nP (3) ML estimation of P = ? is reached for Therefore, the ratio k/n is a good estimate for the probability P and hence for the density function p. p(x) is continuous and that the region R is so small that p does not vary significantly within it, we can write: where x is a point within R and V the volume enclosed by R. Combining equation (1) , (3) and (4) yields: Condition for convergence if we fix V, and take more training samples, k/n will converge, but then we have only obtain an estimate of the space-averaged value (P/V) of p(x). p(x) is obtained only if V approaches zero. This is the case where no samples are included in R: it is an uninteresting case! In this case, it is also an uninteresting case! The volume V needs to approach 0 anyway if we want to use this estimation Practically, V cannot be allowed to bec