管理学_控制与过程控制剖析.ppt

* Because employees will attempt to excel at those activities that are measured, what managers measure is probably more critical to the control process than how it is measured. Most control systems measure information, operations, finances, or people. Some control activities are generic: for example, measuring turnover or absenteeism and keeping costs within budgetary constraints. However, any comprehensive system of controls must recognize that managerial control activities are diverse. Marketing managers, for example, may measure market share and average dollar volume of sales. On the other hand, production managers may measure quantity of units produced per day or scrap per unit of output. Some activities, however, are difficult to quantify, such as the performance of a research chemist or elementary school teacher. Even so, managers must determine what value a person, department, or unit contributes to the organization and then convert the contribution into standards. * When managers attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, they are shaping behavior. Managers shape behavior by systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an employee closer to the desired response. Methods of Shaping Behavior. Behavior can be shaped in four ways: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Following a response with something pleasant is called positive reinforcement. Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant is called negative reinforcement. Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate the undesirable behavior. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining behavior is called extinction. Both positive and negative reinforcement result in learning; however, both punishment and extinction weaken behavior and decrease its frequency. The following summarizes the research on reinforcement: 1. Some type of reinforcement is necessary to