basic concepts of surveying - elsevier（测量的基本概念u2014u2014爱思唯尔）.pdf

1 Basic concepts of surveying The aim of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the basic concepts of surveying. It is therefore the most important chapter and worthy of careful study and consideration. 1.1 DEFINITION Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth. These features may be represented in analogue form as a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form such as a digital ground model (DGM). In engineering surveying, either or both of the above formats may be used for planning, design and construction of works, both on the surface and underground. At a later stage, surveying techniques are used for dimensional control or setting out of designed constructional elements and also for monitoring deformation movements. In the first instance, surveying requires management and decision making in deciding the appropriate methods and instrumentation required to complete the task satisfactorily to the specified accuracy and within the time limits available. This initial process can only be properly executed after very careful and detailed reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed. When the above logistics are complete, the field work – involving the capture and storage of field data – is carried out using instruments and techniques appropriate to the task in hand. Processing the data is the next step in the operation. The majority, if not all, of the computation will be carried out with computing aids ranging from pocket calculator to personal computer. The methods adopted will depend upon the size and precision of the survey and the manner of its recording; whether in a field book or a data logger. Data representation in analogue or digital form may now be carried out by conventional cartographic plotting or through a totally automated computer-based system leading to a paper- or screen-based plot. In engineeri