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Spanner: Google’s Globally-Distributed Database
James C. Corbett, Jeffrey Dean, Michael Epstein, Andrew Fikes, Christopher Frost, JJ Furman,
Sanjay Ghemawat, Andrey Gubarev, Christopher Heiser, Peter Hochschild, Wilson Hsieh,
Sebastian Kanthak, Eugene Kogan, Hongyi Li, Alexander Lloyd, Sergey Melnik, David Mwaura,
David Nagle, Sean Quinlan, Rajesh Rao, Lindsay Rolig, Yasushi Saito, Michal Szymaniak,
Christopher Taylor, Ruth Wang, Dale Woodford
Google, Inc.
Abstract tency over higher availability, as long as they can survive
1 or 2 datacenter failures.
Spanner is Google’s scalable, multi-version, globally-
distributed, and synchronously-replicated database. It is Spanner’s main focus is managing cross-datacenter
the first system to distribute data at global scale and sup- replicated data, but we have also spent a great deal of
port externally-consistent distributed transactions. This time in designing and implementing important database
paper describes how Spanner is structured, its feature set, features on top of our distributed-systems infrastructure.
the rationale underlying various design decisions, and a Even though many projects happily use Bigtable [9], we
novel time API that exposes clock uncertainty. This API have also consistently received complaints from users
and its implementation are critical to supporting exter- that Bigtable can be difficult to use for some kinds of ap-
nal consistency and a variety of powerful features: non- plications: those that have complex, evolving schemas,
blocking reads in the past, lock-free read-only transac- or those that want strong consistency in the presence of
tions, and atomic schema cha
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