Unit2Loads,StressesandPrestresses.docVIP

Unit 2 Loads, Stresses and Prestresses When a modern engineer plans a structure，he takes into account the total weight of all its component materials．This is known as the Dead Load．which is the weight of the structure itself．And he must also consider the Live Load．the weight of all the people，cars，furniture，machines，and so on that the structure will support when it is used．In structures such as bridges that will handle fast automobile traffic，he must consider the Impact，the force at which the live load will be exerted on the structure．He must also work out the safety factor，that is, an additional capability to make the structure stronger than the combination of the three other factors． The modern engineer must also understand the different forces to which the members in a structure are subject．The stresses caused by these forces in the materials of the members include compression and tension that are opposite in direction．In compression the material is pressed or pushed together；in tension the material is pulled apart or stretched，like a rubber band．The top surface of a member is concave，or bent inward，and the material in it is in compression．The bottom surface is convex or bent outward，and the material in it is in tension． In addition to forces that cause compressive and tensile stresses，another force is at work，namely the shearing force，which causes shearing stress．The shearing force might occur in a vertical plane．but it also might run along the axial direction of the beam，the neutral plane，where there is neither tension nor compression． Altogether，three forces can act on a structure：vertical——those that act up and down；horizontal—those that act sideways forces that act at all angle are a combination of vertical and horizontal forces ；and those that make the structure rotate or turn．Since the structures designed by civil engineers are intended to be stationary or stable，these forces must be kept in balance．The vertical forces．For example，must be equal to each o