4建构合理论证(阅读).pptVIP

Critical Thinking And Argumentation PART 4:构建合理的论证 Informal arguments are studied in?informal logic, are presented in?ordinary language?and are intended for everyday?discourse. Conversely, formal arguments are studied in?formal logic?(historically called?symbolic logic, more commonly referred to as?mathematical logic?today) and are expressed in a?formal language. Informal logic may be said to emphasize the study of?argumentation, whereas formal logic emphasizes?implication?and?inference. Informal arguments are sometimes implicit. That is, the logical structure?–the relationship of claims, premises, warrants, relations of implication, and conclusion?–is not always spelled out and immediately visible and must sometimes be made explicit by analysis. 4.1 Elements of An Argument CLAIM OF FACT - statement that can be proven or verified by observation or research. “Within ten years, destruction of rain forests will cause hundreds of plant and animal species to become extinct.” CLAIM OF VALUE - states that one thing or idea is better or more desirable than another. “Requiring community service in high school will produce more community-aware graduates.” CLAIM OF POLICY - suggests what should or ought to be done to solve a problem. “To reduce school violence, more gun and metal detectors should be installed in public schools.” REASON - a general statement that supports a claim. EVIDENCE - consists of facts, statistics, experiences, comparisons, and examples that show why the claim is valid. EMOTIONAL APPEALS - ideas that are targeted toward needs or values that readers are likely to care about. Warrants are based on: Authority: respect for credibility and trustworthiness of source Substance: reliability of facts and evidence Motivation: values and beliefs of audience and writer. The evidence should be: Sufficient Representative Relevant Accurate Fair and balanced 有甲、乙、丙、丁四个果园，其中甲园的各种果树都能在乙园找到，丙园的果树种类包含所有的乙园果树种类，而丙园中有一些果树在丁园也