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* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * */59 Dimensionality Reduction:Multi-Dimensional Scaling Raw stress function (identical to PCA):  Sammon cost function: */59 Dimensionality Reduction:Multi-Dimensional Scaling (Example) Input: Output: */59 Dimensionality Reduction:Homogeneity analysis Homals finds a lower-dimensional representation of categorical data matrix X. It may be considered as a type of nonlinear extension of PCA.  */59 Clustering:Similarity measures for hierarchical clustering Clustering