the beginningsof oceanography（的beginningsof海洋学）.docVIP

The Beginnings of Oceanography The birth of oceanography (the science of the sea) was slow in coming. The biggest problem, then as now, is that the oceans are so vast, so deep, and so difficult to probe. The Greek philosopher Aristotle of the fourth century B.C.E. was among the first to study the sea and its marine life in a systematic way. He identified about 180 types of marine animals and suggested why the sea was salty. But it was not until nearly 2,000 years later, in the 1660s C.E., that European researchers began to take interest in the scientific study of the oceans. Fellows of the Royal Society of London wrote a practical guide to encourage seafarers to make scientific measurements at sea, such as taking sea-temperature readings and depth soundings, and using nets to catch tiny marine creatures. However, the biggest problem was that, beyond sight of land, seafarers could not work out their exact position. Using devices such as the astrolabe, quarterstaff, or back staff, they could measure the height (elevation) of the Sun or certain stars above the horizon and so calculate their latitude (north-south location). But they did not have accurate time-pieces that they would need to measure longitude (east-west location). With the development of accurate timepieces—chronometers—in the 18th century, longitude suddenly became measurable and seafarers could plot their precise location at sea. By the early 1800s the governments of several seafaring nations were producing accurate sea charts. Safe passage at sea—for example, avoiding hidden reefs that could sink a ship—could be vital to a countrys fishing industry, sea trade, and naval success. Explorers were beginning to study creatures hauled up from the ocean depths. In 1817–18 the Scottish explorer John Ross (1777–1856) dragged up worms and starfish from a depth of more than 4,100 feet (about 1,250 m) in Canadas Baffin Bay. Some 20 years later, his nephew, James Clark Ross (1800–62), captured similar animals from