密码学(RSA)入门.pptVIP

CONGRUENCE ?Let m be an integer greater than 1. If x and y are integers, we say that x is congruent to y modulo m if x - y is divisible by m. If x is congruent to y in Zm, we write x ≡ y (mod m); otherwise, we write x ? y (mod m). Ex1: 3 ≡ 24 (mod 7) because 3 - 24 = -7 is divisible by 7. But 42 ? 5 (mod 8), since 42 – 5 = 37 is not divisible by 8. Similarly, 98 ≡ 43 (mod 11) and 4 ? 29 (mod 6). Note: “mod” is a binary operator when in binary operation with two inputs x and n, r ≡ x mod n (ex: 2 ≡ 12 mod 10), and the output r is called the residue. ?Congruences occur in applications involving error-detecting  codes. Take ISBN for an example, which is a 10-digit code. ?It consists of four parts: a group code, a publisher code, an identifying number assigned by the publisher, and a check bit (which is used to detect errors in copying or transmitting the ISBN.) ?The check digit has 11 possible values: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or x (x representing the number 10.) This digit is determined by multiplying the first 9 digits of the ISBN by 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2, respectively, and add these 9 products to obtain a number y. The check digit d is then chosen so that d + y ≡ 0 (mod 11). Ex2: The check digit is 5 for the ISBN 0-673-38582-5 because 10?(0)+9?(6)+8?(7)+7?(3)+6?(3)+5?(8)+4?(5)+3?(8)+2?(2) = 0 + 54+ 56 + 21 + 18 + 40 + 20 + 24 + 4 = 237 and 237 + 5 = 242 ≡ 0 (mod 11) Likewise, the check digit is 9 for the ISBN 0-321-30515-9 because 10?(0)+9?(3)+8?(2)+7?(1)+6?(3)+5?(0)+4?(5)+3?(1)+2?(5) = 101 and 101 + 9 = 110 ≡ 0 (mod 11) Theorem: Congruence modulo m is an equivalence relation. In Z3 the distinct congruence classes are [0]3 = {…, -6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9, …} ? -6 ≡ 0 ≡ 3 (mod 3) [1]3 = {…, -5, -2, 1, 4, 7, 10,