信息安全概论-lecture043.ppt

Public Key Cryptography Public Key Algorithms Network Security Euler’s Totient function ?(n) - again ?(n) is the number of positive integers less than n and relatively prime to n. Let p be a prime. Then ?(p) = p – 1 Let n = pq for p and q prime. Then ?(n) = ?(pq) = ?(p)?(q) Proof outline: look at numbers relatively prime to pq. Must take all the numbers less than pq but eliminate multiples of p and multiples of q. (pq – 1)–(q – 1)–(p – 1) = (p – 1)(q – 1) Example: let n = 15, Then ?(15) = ?(5) ?(3) = 8 Z15* = {1,2,4,7,8,11,13,14} Euler’s Theorem - extension Euler’s theorem: for every a and n that are relatively prime, a?(n) ≡ 1 mod n Corollary: for every a and n that are relatively prime, ak?(n)+1 ≡ a mod n For n a product of two primes p and q, then for all a and k non-negative, ak?(n)+1 ≡ a mod n Proof outline: consider case where a is a multiple of p, a = cp. Then gcd(a,q) = 1. Discrete Logarithms Let y = gx mod p x is said to be the (discrete) logarithm of y, with base g. It is easy to compute y, given g,x, and p. It is hard to find x, given g,p, and y. It is believed to be as hard as factoring large primes. Looking at the mod 10 table Note that ?(10) = 4. Also, 10 is the product of distinct primes so Euler’s theorem applies (for any x) that is x1 + k?(n) = x mod n where n = 10, for all x thus ?(10) = 4 means that every 4th column will be the same (except starting at x0) Note however that although exponentiating by 1, 3, and 4, are a permutation of the set 1-9, exponentiating by 2 does not result in a permutation. this is because 2 is not a coprime of 4 = ?(10) for all coprimes of 4, for example e = 3 we can find a d such that ed = 1 mod 4. Thus, using mod 10 arithmetic, xed = x1+ ?(10) = x and thus x3 has an exponentiative inverse in the sense that for all x, (x3)d = x, for some d. RSA Rivest, Shamir, Adleman, 1978, MIT Variable key size, common to use 1024 bits Generating RSA keys is based on finding multiplicative inverses of lar