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1565550327315155550573qmcFor most of the common metals, three relatively simple crystal structures are found: face-centered cubic (or FCC), body-centered cubic (BCC), and hexagonal close-packed (HCP). The various types of crystal imperfections can be grouped into three classes: point defects, line defects, surface defects. Based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, solid materials have been conveniently grouped into four classifications: metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. Three types of galvanic couples can start an electrochemical attack: composition couples, stress couples, concentration couples. The rapid heating can be accomplished in two ways: The first method, called flame hardening, the second method is called induction hardening (or high-frequency induction hardening). In the nonferrous alloys，agnesium (or Mg) is the proper material if weight is the only problem, whereat titanium (or Ti) could be the logical candidate if the strength-to-weight ratio is the dominant factor. aluminum (Al) should be considered for all intermediate problems, where the minimum weight or maximum strength factor can be compromised for better economy of raw material and fabrication. Portland cement clinker consists mainly of tricalcium silicate (or C3S), dicalcium silicate (or C2S), tricalcium aluminate (or C3A), calcium aluminoferrite (or C2(A, F)). Fly ash may be of siliceous or calcareous nature. The former has only pozzolanic properties. The latter may additionally have hydraulic properties. Resonance: All bodies have natural frequencies at which they vibrate freely. If vibration, that is, sound waves, reaches a body at its natural frequency, the body also starts to vibrate. This phenomenon is called resonance. Welding: Welding is the joining of two or more pieces of material by applying heat, pressure, or both, with or without filler material, to produce a localized union through fusion or recrystallization across the interface. Casting: A casting may be