reference and inference.pptVIP

Reference And Inference Reference Modern academic study of reference has been developing since the 19th century. The reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.These linguistic forms are called referring expressions. Referring Expressions a. proper nouns: ‘Beijing’ ‘Bill Clinton ’ b.noun phrases (definite): ‘The capital’ ‘The ex-president’ c.noun phrases (indefinite): ‘A place’ ‘A man’ nouns: ‘It’ ‘He, him’ Referring Expressions The choice of one type of referring expression rather than another seems to be based, to a large extent, on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows. Reference in a Broad Sense References are indicated by sounds( like onomatopoeia), pictures(like roadsigns),text(like bibliographies), indexes(by number)and objects(a wedding ring). in semantics,reference is generally constructed as the relationships between nouns or pronouns and objects that are named by them. e.g.:the word Johnrefers to John.The word itrefers to some previously specified object. The object referred to is called the referent of the word. Categories of References 1.nominal reference common nouns proper nouns: names of persons,institutions 2.pronominal reference personal reference人称指称 they, my, mine demonstrative reference指示指称 this, that, the comparative reference比较指称 same,similar,otherwise Reference In shared visual contexts,those pronouns that function as deictic expressions(for exa