5第五讲市场失灵与政府政策讲义.ppt

* Nitrogen oxides increase ground-level ozone, which has adverse health effects. For more information, see /airmarkets/ For information about Europe’s new carbon emissions trading program, see the Financial Times article featured in this chapter’s new “In the News” box. You can also find lots of good articles on this program at the website of the Financial Times, . Under Obama’s cap-and-trade proposal, permits will be auctioned to polluters. As Mankiw notes in his New York Times piece reprinted in the textbook, such a system is equivalent to a tax. In contrast, under McCain’s proposed cap-and-trade system, “permits will eventually be auctioned…” (my emphasis). * The textbook gives a nice example of a contract in which a beekeeper and apple orchard manager each agree to boost production, as each producer’s activity confers an external benefit on the other. * 科斯因为对经济的体制结构取得突破性的研究成果，荣获1991年诺贝尔经济学奖。他的杰出贡献是发现并阐明了交换成本和产权在经济组织和制度结构中的重要性及其在经济活动中的作用。科斯的代表作是两篇著名的论文，其一是1937年发表的《企业的本质》，该文独辟蹊径地讨论了企业存在的原因及其扩展规模的界限问题，科斯创造了“交易成本”这一重要概念来予以解释 。 另一篇著名论文是1960年发表的《社会成本问题》，该文重新研究了交易成本为零时合约行为的特征，批评了庇古关于“外部性”问题的补偿原则（政府干预），并论证了在产权明确的前提下，市场交易即使在出现社会成本（即外部性）的场合也同样有效。科斯发现，一旦假定交易成本为零，而且对产权（指财产使用权，即运行和操作中的财产权利）界定是清晰的，那么法律规范并不影响合约行为的结果，即最优化结果保持不变。换言之，只要交易成本为零，那么无论产权归谁，都可以通过市场自由交易达到资源的最佳配置。 * Both Jane and Dick are better off. (What about Spot? Doesn’t anyone care about Spot???) * 尽管科斯定理很吸引人，但是私人市场往往并不能自己解决外部性问题。 只有当利益各方可以顺利达成和实施协议时，科斯定理才适用。但是，在现实世界中，即使在各方可能达成互利协议的情况下，协商的方式也并不总是有效。 政府是为集体行为而设立的一种机构。 An example for each bullet point in the context of the brainstorming activity on the previous slide: 1. Transactions costs: Suppose lawyers charge $60,000 to represent the two parties and draw up a contract that is enforceable in a court. Then it will be impossible for both parties to come to a mutually beneficial agreement, and the factory will continue polluting the lake. 2. Stubbornness:Suppose the town offers $55,000 to the factory. The factory would be better off ta