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Chapter 7 Balanced Realization and Computation of Norms
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Controller and Observer Forms
? Consider system
x? = Ax + Bu, y = Cx + Du (1)
where x ∈ Rn, u ∈ Rm and y ∈ Rp.
? Assume that the system is controllable and rankB = m.
? Single input case (m = 1). The controller form of state-space realiza-
tion is
Ac =
?????
0 1 · · · 0
... ... . . . ...
0 0 · · · 1
?α0 ?α1 · · · ?αn?1
????? , Bc =
?????
0
...
0
1
?????
where αi, i = 0, 1, · · · , n? 1 are coefficients of characteristic polyno-
mial:
α(s) = det(sI ? A) = sn + αn?1sn?1 + · · · + α1s + α0
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? No particular structure for Cc = CP?1 and Dc = D.
? P is obtained as follows. The controllability matrix
C = [B AB · · · An?1B]
is non-singular. Let C?1 =
[ ?
q
]
, i.e. q is the last row of C?1.
? Form
P =
??? qqA· · ·
qAn?1
???
? Note that qAi?1B = 0, i = 1, 2, · · · , n ? 1 and qAn?1B = 1. Thus,
qC = [0 0 · · · 1] and
PC = P [B AB · · · An?1B] =
????
0 0 · · · · · · 1
0 0 · · · 1 ?
... 1 ... ...
1 ? · · · ? ?
????
implying that P is invertible.
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? Clearly, PB = [0 0 · · · 1]T and AcP =
????
qA
...
qAn?1
qAn
???? = PA, where in the
last row we have used the Cayley Hamilton Theorem.
? Example:
A =
?? ?1 0 00 1 0
0 0 ?2
?? , B =
?? 1?1
1
??
? Note that det(sI ? A) = s3 + 2s2 ? s + 2. Then,
Ac =
?? 0 1 00 0 1
2 1 ?2
?? , Bc =
?? 00
1
??
? P can be obtained as P =
?? ?1/2 ?1/6 1/31/2 ?1/6 ?2/3
?1/2 ?1/6 4/3
??.
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? Multi-input case (m 1). In this case, the controllability matrix will not
be square. Let μi, i = 1, 2, · · · , μm be controllability indices. Then,
C? = [b1 Ab1 · · · Aμ1?1b1; · · · ; bm · · · Aμm?1bm]
is a square invertible matrix.
? Define σk =
k∑
i=1
μi, k = 1, 2, · · · ,m. Let qk be the σk-th row of C??1.
? Define
P =
?????????????
q1
q1A
...
q1A
μ1?1
...
qm
qmAm
...
qmA
μm?1
?????????????
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