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Chapter Two Orientational Metaphors I definition A kind of metaphors which organize a whole system of concepts with respect to one another. Since most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral, we call them orientational metaphors. These spatial orientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. Such metaphorical orientations are not arbitrary. They have a basis in our physical and cultural experience. Though the polar oppositions up-down, in-out, etc., are physical in nature, the orientational metaphors vary from culture to culture. II General metaphorical extensions 1 Quantity 1.1 Experiential grounding—If more of a substance or of physical objects is added to a container or pile, the level goes up. 1.2 Realizations of the Metaphor— Increase/Drop in salary / costs/ prices/ inflation/ temperature /speed /volume /pitch of voice 工资上调 消费下降 物价上涨 抑制通货膨胀 温度上升 声音上扬 数量下降 2 Social Hierachy 2.1 Experiential grounding—In ancient society, a man’s status is associated with his physical strength, the latter in turn is typically correlated with his physical size. In modern society, social status is typically correlated with social power. The higher the status, the more the power. 2.2 Realizations of the Metaphor Architecture: the halls in the Forbidden City symbolize the emperor’s status and power in people’s eyes and are therefore raised far above the ground level. Rituals: the throne of the emperor was always situated at a place several steps higher than the seats for his ministers. Within family households, the seat for the patriarch was also situated at a higher place or at a place considered to be higher. Common people kowtow in front of officials to acknowledge their humbleness. The rebellious were forced to kneel down on their knees to repent of their sin. Social practices: In a name