Entailment(衍推)(含蕴)(意含).DOC

Ch. 3 Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse Semantics (語義學) studies the timeless meaning of a linguistic expression. Pragmatics (語用學) studies the effect of context on meaning. (It’s cold here comes to be interpreted as “close the windows” in certain situations.) Semantics is the study of “truth-conditional meaning” while pragmatics is “meaning minus truth-conditions” Discourse (言談; 論述) is the connected text (spoken, written, signed) above the level of the sentence. A piece of discourse can be a letter, a speech, a conversation, an essay, a story, an interview or a novel. Discourse Analysis is a method for the analysis of connected speech (or writing). Word/Phrase Extension (外延) Reference(外指涉) Denotation(外向意義) Intension(內延) Sense (內指涉) Connotation(內向意義) Bird Robin, dove, parrot, duck All animals that fit the defining properties of birds, i.e. ［］［］［］［］ Capital of Massachusetts Boston City which is the seat of state government Pope Benedict XVI (2006) Leader of the Roman Catholic Church President of the United States George W. Bush (2006) The elected political leader of the United States of America Winter Snow, ice, freezing cold, slippery roads The season between autumn and spring Entailment (衍推) (含蘊) (意含) is the relationship of logical inclusion between sentences. Definition: In semantics, the principle that under certain conditions the truth of one statement ensures the truth of a second statement. We can find countless examples where entailment relations hold between sentences and countless where they do not. The English sentence (14) is normally interpreted so that it entails the sentences in (15) but does not entail those in (16). (14) Lee kissed Kim passionately. (15)a. Lee kissed Kim.b. Kim was kissed by Lee.c. Kim was kissed.d. Lee touched Kim with her lips. (16)a. Lee married Kim.b. Kim kissed Lee.c. Lee kissed Kim many times.d. Lee did not kiss Kim. Presupposition (預設)：；，，。A預設命题B; 當： (a) 如果A 為真，那麼B 也為真； (b) 如果A為 假，那麼B 仍為真。 (1) Kepler died in mis