绪论研究生英语提高.docVIP

Introduction What is civilization? What is culture? The significance of possessing the knowledge of European Culture. Definition of civilization Civilization (or civilization, from the Latin civilis, meaning civil, related to the Latin civis, meaning citizen, and civitas, meaning city or city-state) is a sometimes controversial term that has been used in several related ways. Primarily, the term has been used to refer to the material and instrumental side of human cultures that are complex in terms of technology, science, and division of labor. Such civilizations are generally hierarchical and urbanized. In a classical context, people were called civilized to set them apart from barbarians, savages, and primitive peoples while in a modern-day context, civilized peoples have been contrasted with indigenous peoples or tribal societies. There is a tendency to use the term in a less strict way, to mean approximately the same thing as culture and therefore, the term can more broadly refer to any important and clearly defined human society. Still, even when used in this second sense, the word is often restricted to apply only to societies that have attained a particular level of advancement—especially the founding of cities. The level of advancement of a civilization is often measured by its progress in agriculture, long-distance trade, occupational specialization, a special governing class, and urbanism. Aside from these core elements, a civilization is often marked by any combination of a number of secondary elements, including a developed transportation system, writing, standardized measurement, currency, contractual and tort-based legal systems, characteristic art and architecture, mathematics, enhanced scientific understanding, metallurgy, political structures, and organized religion. All in all, A civilization (or civilisation) is a classification of all material objects and processes created not by nature but by humans. Culture Culture (Latin: cultura,