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Convective mixing in the Earth’s mantle Peter E. van Keken Department of Geological Sciences, University of Michigan, 425 East University Avenue, 2534 CC Little Building, Ann Arbor MI 48109-1063, USA. Phone: 1-734-764-1497, Fax: 1-734-763-4690, E-mail: keken@ Chris J. Ballentine Department of Earth Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom, E-mail: cballentine@fs1.ge.man.ac.uk Erik H. Hauri Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 5241 Broad Branch Road, NW, Washington DC 20015, E-mail: Hauri@ 1. Introduction The observed geochemical diversity of mid-oceanic ridge and ocean island basalts is generally attributed to the existence of large-scale and long-term chemical heterogeneity in the Earth’s silicate mantle. Yet, it is far from clear how this heterogeneity is generated and how it is maintained in the convecting mantle. Quantitative mixing studies indicate that the present day Earth is convecting vigorously enough to erase significant initial heterogeneity well within the age of the Earth. This suggests that some form of layering, or barrier against convective mixing is required to explain the geochemical observations. The most basic form of layering is that of the classical two-layer mantle, where a depleted and well-mixed upper mantle is separated by the seismically distinct 670 km boundary from a poorly mixed and enriched lower mantle. The mid-oceanic ridge basalts (MORB) originate from melting of the upper mantle, whereas ocean island basalts (OIB) derive from melting of material that is brought up from the lower mantle by plumes. This model has worked well to explain a large number of observations regarding noble gas and trace element concentrations and the distribution of mantle heat sources. However, in recent years this model has come under siege. Geophysical and geodynamical observations indicate that significant mass exchange occurs through the Earth’s transition zone. In add