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Mitochondria and chloroplasts Non-coding DNA is rare in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria originated more than a billion years ago when a free-living bacterium, the closest living relatives of which are the α-proteobacteria, entered a eukaryotic cell. Bacterial endosymbiosis is also thought to be the origin of chloroplasts, with the cyanobacteria (blue-gree algae) as the most likely ancestors. Mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) sizes range from only 6kb (kilobases) up to more than 2000kb, with the human version being some 16kb in length. In animals and plants, mitochondria are maternally inherited through the egg cytoplasm. mtDNA does not appear to undergo recombination and in mammals evolves about tenfold faster than nuclear DNA, make it an extremely important study tool in molecular population genetics and systematics. In many plant and fungal mtDNAs, self-splicing introns. The chloroplast genome (cpDNA) is ranging in size from 120 to 220kb. Two inverted repeat (IR) regions which separate a large single copy (LSC) region and a small single copy (SSC) region. Sometimes because genes have migrated to the nuclear genome and been lost from the chloroplast genome. Consists of about 1000 protein-coding genes, about 30 tRNA genes and four rRNA genes. Plant chloroplast genes evolve some four- to fivefold more slowly than those the nucleus, but about threefold faster than plant mtDNA genes. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS Life on earth originated more than 3 billion years ago. The first cellular organisms were prokaryotic; they lacked true nuclei and cytoplasmic organelles and were heterotrophic. Eukaryotic organisms evolved 1 to 1.5 billions years ago. The first known eukaryotes were filamentous green algae, with nuclei and elaborate intracellular organization, including subcellular organelles. In the 1970 Lynn Margulis forcefully argued that both mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living or