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2. Ice cores Acid aerosols fall on ice fields Accumulation of ice preserves information - acidity profile Climatically significant eruptions can be identified with great precision Advantages: objective, precise, records `climatically significant` eruptions only Disadvantages: Which eruptions and why? Only those with high sulfur contents. Geographical bias. HALF of known large eruptions not recorded in Greenland ice cores Making the connection 3. Tree rings Proxy witnesses to eruptions Temperate trees record passage of seasons in growth rings - dendochronology Changes in ring spacing, frost damage correlate with known eruptions Advantages: Trees, are old! Record extends back thousands of years. Objective, precise Disadvantages: Tree growth sensitive to things apart from climate. Local environmental factors significant Making the connection 20 km3 of pyroclastic material in a Plinian column 40 km high Aerosol veil circumnavigated the globe in ~2 weeks Initially confined to the tropics, later spread to higher latitudes in both hemispheres Caused spectacular sunsets worldwide 20% fall in radiant energy reaching Europe after the eruption Average Northern Hemisphere cooling of 0.25oC, more pronounced at higher latitudes (-1oC) Case study: Krakatau, 1883 50 km3 of pyroclasts, Plinian column 43 km high Aerosol veil reached London in about 3 months Many climatic effects attributed to Tambora 1816 - `the year without a summer` inspired `Frankenstein` Anomalously cold winter in North America and Europe Widespread crop failures, famine Case study: Tambora, 1815 Global sulfur emissions GLOBAL SULFUR EMISSION TO THE ATMOSPHERE (1990 annual mean) Chin et al. [2000] Industrial SO2 emissions During the last decade, researchers from different countries have prepared separate country-level inventories of anthropogenic emissions (GEIA= Global Emission Inventory Activity). In regions were local inventories were not available, estimates based on fossil fuel con