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Journal of Economic Perspectives— Volume 8, Number 2—Spring 1994—Pages 93–115
Systems Competition
and Network Effects
Michael L. Katz and Carl Shapiro
any products have little or no value in isolation, but generate value
when combined with others . Examples include : nuts and bolts, which
Mtogether provide fastening services; home audio or video compo-
nents and programming, which together provide entertainment services; auto-
mobiles, repair parts and service, which together provide transportation
services; facsimile machines and their associated communications protocols,
which together provide fax services; automatic teller machines and ATM cards,
which together provide transaction services; camera bodies and lenses, which
together provide photographic services. These are all examples of products
that are strongly complementary, although they need not be consumed in fixed
proportions . We describe them as forming systems, which refers to collections
of two or more components together with an interface that allows the compo-
nents to work together .
This paper and the others in this symposium explore the economics of
such systems. Market competition between systems, as opposed to market
competition between individual products, highlights at least three important
issues: expectations, coordination, and compatibility. A recent wave of research
has focused on the behavior and performance of the variety of private and
public institutions that arise in systems markets to influence expectations,
facilitate coordination, and achieve compatibility.
In many cases, the components purchased
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