（individual）分析为重点使用抽象、演.pptVIP

使用价值作为商品的一种品质，是商品拥有交换价值必不可少的特征与先决条件 但是由于使用价值是一个被认为无法测度的特征因而未被用于解释交换价值 边际理论的关键是商品的使用价值不仅是可以被测度的而且随商品消费数量的增加而递减。商品的交换价值取决于所消费的最后一个单位带来的使用价值也就是边际效用 * * 下面介绍另一位边际理论奠基人——杜布衣。总的来说，杜布衣不是一个响亮的名字，对于他的名字甚至找不到一个统一的中文翻译。由于他是法国人，根据法语发音的规则，我们可以把他叫做杜布衣。 * 我们将在下面对于他的边际效用思想作详细的阐述。 * As the quantity of a good consumed rises, the marginal utility of the good declines for the user. So the lower the toll (lower marginal utility), the more people who would use the bridge (higher consumption). Conversely as the quantity rises (people allowed on the bridge), the willingness of a person to pay for that good (the price) declines. * 如果总效用最大为目标，价格=0。但此时无法弥补成本。杜普伊特要解决的问题是减少 f 的面积。他提出多重定价方案。边际效用高于6的消费者索要高于6的价格，而其他的则可以索要低于6的价格，用额外的消费者剩余来弥补成本损失。 不过杜普伊特的多重定价方案并没有认识到价格歧视需要两个条件：可以分割市场；不存在转卖等混淆市场的情况。 * * * * * * * * * * Profit Maximization by a Monopoly Quantity 0 Costs and Revenue Demand Marginal revenue Price Monopoly quantity Marginal cost Competitive quantity A form of imperfect competition where all firms simultaneously decide how much to produce. If there are only two firms, it is known as Cournot duopoly. Cournot competition produces an equilibrium with price greater than the competitive price and lower than the monopoly price. Assumptions homogeneous product No collusion Firms have market power The number of firms is fixed Firms compete in quantities, and choose quantities simultaneously; The firms are economically rational, seeking to maximize profit given their competitors decisions. * * Profit Maximizing Duopolists Quantity 0 Costs and Revenue Demand1 Marginal revenue Price Monopoly quantity Marginal cost There are two firms: A and B. This picture shows Firm A. If Firm B produces nothing, Firm A’s demand is Demand1. It produces the monopoly output. If Firm B begins to produce, Firm A will respond by producing less. If Firm B produces even more, Firm A will produce even less. The bigger is Firm B’s output, the smaller is Firm A’s production. Demand2 Demand3 * Duopoly Firm A’s producti