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Genomes and Their Evolution ;Overview: Reading the Leaves from the Tree of Life;Genomics is the study of whole sets of genes and their interactions Bioinformatics is the application of computational methods to the storage and analysis of biological data;Figure 21.1;Concept 21.1: New approaches have accelerated the pace of genome sequencing;Three-Stage Approach to Genome Sequencing;Figure 21.2-1;Figure 21.2-2;Figure 21.2-3;Figure 21.2-4;A physical map expresses the distance between genetic markers, usually as the number of base pairs along the DNA It is constructed by cutting a DNA molecule into many short fragments and arranging them in order by identifying overlaps;Sequencing machines are used to determine the complete nucleotide sequence of each chromosome A complete haploid set of human chromosomes consists of 3.2 billion base pairs;Whole-Genome Shotgun Approach to Genome Sequencing;Cut the DNA intooverlapping frag-ments short enoughfor sequencing.;Cut the DNA intooverlapping frag-ments short enoughfor sequencing.;Cut the DNA intooverlapping frag-ments short enoughfor sequencing.;Both the three-stage process and the whole-genome shotgun approach were used for the Human Genome Project and for genome sequencing of other organisms At first many scientists were skeptical about the whole-genome shotgun approach, but it is now widely used as the sequencing method of choice The development of newer sequencing techniques has resulted in massive increases in speed and decreases in cost;Technological advances have also facilitated metagenomics, in which DNA from a group of species (a metagenome) is collected from an environmental sample and sequenced This technique has been used on microbial communities, allowing the sequencing of DNA of mixed populations, and eliminating the need to culture species in the lab;Concept 21.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyze genomes and their functions;Centralized Resources for Analyzing Genome Sequences;Genbank, the NCBI dat