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Indicators of forest degradation – biodiversity Ian Thompson, Robert Nasi, Kimiko Okabe, Valerie Kapos, and James Gordon 1.2 Introduction to forest biodiversity indicators: Forest-associated biodiversity is one of several criteria by which forest degradation can be assessed. We are not proposing a single ‘biodiversity score’ or cumulative index, rather we suggest that loss of biodiversity needs to be assessed independently for several key indicators. These indicators would be scored against an a priori expectation of level or kind of biodiversity (e.g., number of certain species, populations of functional species, numbers of ecosystem types, etc.) to determine a level of degradation for each indicator and for the forest stand or landscape. At the very least, an indicator requires two points in time, or a measure against a control value. The proposed biodiversity indicators would form a common set that could be employed to determine the amount of degradation in a local forest, regardless of the forest type. The actual component, however, (e.g., a species or a forest type) being measured would obviously differ depending on the local forests. Degradation differs from forest loss but some loss of forests across a landscape can degrade the larger area from a biodiversity perspective. For example, Andren (1994) suggested a threshold of 30-40% forest loss across a landscape resulted in non-linear declines in species occurrence. This threshold value has since been tested for various species and landscapes with the result that generality is difficult and thresholds depend on the species of interest and forest type (e.g., Betts and Villard 2008). Hence, thresholds may need to be determined based on expected range of variation for each ecosystem, community, or species of interest. Ecologically, biodiversity objectives relate in large part to the functioning of the ecosystem. This includes important ecosystem services provided by biodiversity such as pollinat