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Sensors 2012, 12, 3162-3185; doi:10.3390/s120303162 OPEN ACCESS sensors ISSN 1424-8220 /journal/sensors Article Monocular Camera/IMU/GNSS Integration for Ground Vehicle Navigation in Challenging GNSS Environments Tianxing Chu 1,*, Ningyan Guo 2, Staffan Backén 3 and Dennis Akos 3 1 School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, No. 5 Yiheyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100871, China 2 School of Instrumentation Science and Optoelectronics Engineering, Beihang University, Xueyuan Road No.37, Haidian District, Beijing 100191, China; E-Mail: ningyan.guo@ 3 Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA; E-Mails: staffan.backen@ltu.se (S.B.); dma@ (D.A.) * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: tianxing.chu@; Tel.: +1-303-492-4462. Received: 27 January 2012; in revised form: 22 February 2012 / Accepted: 22 February 2012 / Published: 7 March 2012 Abstract: Low-cost MEMS-based IMUs, video cameras and portable GNSS devices are commercially available for automotive applications and some manufacturers have already integrated such facilities into their vehicle systems. GNSS provides positioning, navigation and timing solutions to users worldwide. However, signal attenuation, reflections or blockages may give rise to positioning difficulties. As opposed to GNSS, a generic IMU, which is independent of electromagnetic wave reception, can calculate a high-bandwidth navigation solution, however the output from a