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How can the quality of rail services in Tokyo be further improved? Abstract This study aims to examine the preconditions that affect the quality of railway services in Tokyo and its policy implications. Objective evaluation of the quality makes it clear that further investment to improve it is necessary in the future, and that passengers are willing to pay for it. However, some classic features of railways in Tokyo hinder improvement. Particularly, their organizational structure, characterized as territorial fragmentation, makes it difficult to internalize the external `network effect and maximize users’ benefits on a metropolitan scale. Therefore, transport policy needs to transform railway organizations to make further investments efficiently from a social cost/benefit point of view. Further, it is also essential to devise new methodologies to stimulate service promotion of railways as a private business, including financial support for investment and organizational transformation. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Urban railway; Service quality; External network effect; Incentives for making investment 1. Introduction Public transport is regarded as one vital element in creating sustainable cities that have easy accessibility for the aged and are environmentally friendly concerning energy consumption. As such, railways in Tokyo will play an essential role in future of the so-called `matured society, because a substantial proportion of mobility depends on them. In spite of this, it has been widely discussed that the level of services of railways in Tokyo is considered unsatisfactory, compared with other `World Cities, such as New York, London and Paris (London Research Centre, 1999). It means that railway services of Tokyo are characterized by `congestion in cars and stations, despite having a comparatively high level of punctuality, reliability and frequency. Thus, as relieving congestion is closely associated with quality of life and su