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Human Resources Development Program Working Paper 06-Clardy-01 ______________________________________ Andragogy: Adult Learning And Education At Its Best? Alan Clardy August, 2006 ABSTRACT The andragogical model of adult learning and education developed by Malcolm Knowles. the basis for much of “adult learning theory”, is summarized and reviewed in terms of its assumptions, principles and recommended practices. By recasting the model as a theory with attendant hypotheses, it is then critiqued in terms of its theoretical adequacy and empirical support. Theoretically, the model is found wanting because it slights the full range of adult learning experiences, makes misleading distinctions between adult and child learners, minimizes individual differences between adult as learners, and does not adequately deal with the relationship between motivation and learning. Empirically, research testing the effects of andragogy provides inconclusive and contradictory outcomes. New directions for establishing a better theory of learning effectiveness are suggested. Andragogy: Adult Learning And Education At Its Best? It is now well established that adults continue their education after completing their normal school years (Cross 1981, Houle 1961, Peterson 1979). Indeed, whether done informally or formally, or whether at work, school or in the home, continued learning and education are a common experience for most adults. With increased leisure time and rapid economic and technological change, the prospects for increased adult education are strong. But while adults can be readily found in organized and/or intentional educational experiences of various kinds, it is not immediately apparent how the educational experience can best be organized and delivered to the adult learner. Two basic questions are at the center of the adult educational phenomenon: 1. Do adults have unique learning requirements and needs for which the educational process should be tailored in orde