斯蒂芬·P·罗宾斯-管理学原理（英文版·第7版）robbins_fom7_ch04.pptVIP

Stated goals are official statements of what an organization says, and what it wants its stakeholders to believe, its goals are. However, stated goals are often conflicting and influenced by what various stakeholders think organizations should do * When the hierarchy of organizational goals is clearly defined, it forms an integrated network of goals, or a means-ends chain. Higher-level goals (or ends) are linked to lower-level goals, which serve as the means for their accomplishment. In other words, the goals achieved at lower levels become the means to reach the goals (ends) at the next level. And the accomplishment of goals at that level becomes the means to achieve the goals (ends) at the next level and on up through the different organizational levels. That’s how traditional goal setting is supposed to work. Instead of using traditional goal setting, many organizations use management by objectives (MBO), a process of setting mutually agreed-upon goals and using those goals to evaluate employee performance * Strategic plans are those that apply to an entire organization and encompass the organization’s overall goals. Tactical plans (sometimes referred to as operational plans) specify the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved * Long-term plans are now defined as plans with a time frame beyond three years. Short-term plans cover one year or less * Intuitively, it would seem that specific plans would be preferable to directional, or loosely guided, plans. Specific plans are plans that are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation. However, when uncertainty is high and managers must be flexible in order to respond to unexpected changes, they’d likely use directional plans, flexible plans that set general guidelines * Some plans that managers develop are ongoing, while others are used only once. A single-use plan is a one-time plan specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation. In contrast, standing plans are ongoing plans