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Dilemmas of difference, inclusion and disability: international perspectives Brahm Norwich School of Education and Lifelong Learning, University of Exeter. Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, University of Warwick, 6-9 September 2006 Introduction This paper will examine theoretical and empirical aspects about dilemmas of difference as they apply to education and specifically to the area of disability (special educational needs). The basic dilemma is whether to recognise or not to recognise differences, as either way there are some negative implications or risks associated with stigma, devaluation, rejection or denial of relevant opportunities. The study is based on the assumption that there are hard decisions or dilemmas about difference and differentiation. This is because there are positive and negative conceptions in plural democratic societies about human differences and what we call differentiation in education. The negative perspective is that ‘difference’ reflects lower status, less value, perpetuating inequalities and poor quality provision and unfair treatment. The positive perspective is that ‘difference’ reflects the recognition of individuality and individual needs and interests. It is this tension between these conceptions of difference that leads us to confront dilemmas of difference. The specific origins of the notion of dilemmas of difference are political ideas about ideological dilemmas (Dahl, 1982, Berlin, 1990) and US socio-legal analyses about how all kinds of difference are handled in the legal systems which are committed to egalitarian values (Minow, 1985, 1990). Though dilemmas of difference have relevance to other aspects of diversity, beyond disability, and in areas of society, beyond education, the focus in this paper is disability in the area of education. There has been a notable lack of theoretical analysis of educational matters from the perspective of dilemmas. Though the term ‘dilemma’