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Folds,Faults,andGeologicMaps-BakersfieldCollege.doc
Structural Geology and Geologic Maps
Deformation
Deformation refers to all changes in the original form and/or size of a rock body
Most crustal deformation occurs along plate margins
How rocks deform
Rocks subjected to stresses begin to deform by folding, flowing, or fracturing
Deformation is strain and occurs in response to stress:
Compressional stress (Appalachians)
Tensional stress (Basin and Range)
Shear stress (San Andreas Fault)
How rocks deform
General characteristics of rock deformation
Elastic deformation – the rock returns to nearly its original size and shape when the stress is removed
Once the elastic limit (strength) of a rock is surpassed, it either flows (ductile or plastic deformation) or fractures (brittle deformation)
Rock strength is influenced by:
Temperature
Confining pressure
Rock type
Time
Brittle vs. Ductile (Plastic) Deformation
Strike and Dip
Provides a way of describing the orientation of rock beds, fault planes, or joints
Strike is the intersection of a horizontal plane with the bed (a horizontal line measured as a compass direction)
Dip is the direction straight down the slope and is normal to the strike (measured from horizontal)
Folds
During crustal deformation rocks are often bent into a series of wave-like undulations called folds
Most folds result from compressional stresses which shorten and thicken the crust
Parts of a fold
Limbs – refers to the two sides of a fold
Axis – a line drawn down the points of maximum curvature of each layer
Axial plane – an imaginary surface that divides a fold symmetrically
Common types of folds
Anticline – upfolded or arched rock layers (oldest rocks in middle)
Syncline – downfolds or troughs of rock layers (youngest rocks in middle)
Depending on their orientation, anticlines and synclines can be described as
Symmetrical, asymmetrical, recumbent (overturned fold), or plunging
Anticlines and Synclines
Anticlines and Synclines
Chevron Folds
Outcrops of Plunging Folds
Outcrops of Plunging Folds
Common
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